Of note, the influence of SUD on recovery from an episode of bipolar depression appears to be minimal according to a prospective US study. In a large outpatient treatment sample (STEP-BD: Systematic Treatment Enhancement Program for Bipolar Disorder), 2154 individuals with an index episode of bipolar depression completed the two years follow-up. Of these subjects, 1528 had no history of a SUD, while n = 468 (21.7%) had a past SUD and n = 158 (7.3%) had a current SUD. The median SUD age of onset was 19.0 6.3 years (compared to comorbid alcohol use disorders of 18.6 7.5 years). Survival analysis was applied to examine the time to recovery for each group and revealed that median recovery time in individuals with no SUD was 200 days, in subjects with past drug disorders 224 days and 184 days for those with current drug use disorders with no statistical significance across groups. However, those with current or past substance use disorder were more likely to experience a switch from depression directly into a manic, hypomanic, or mixed episode without a symptom-free interval [18], suggestive of greater mood instability in BD with SUD.
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Scholars at Risk calls on states, higher education communities, and civil society around the world to respond to these attacks: to reject violence and coercion aimed at restricting inquiry and expression; to protect threatened scholars, students, and higher education institutions; and to reaffirm publicly their commitment to academic freedom and support for the principles that critical discourse is not disloyalty, that ideas are not crimes, and that everyone must be free to think, question, and share their ideas.
States, higher education communities, and civil society have a responsibility to take action to protect higher education and the free exchange of ideas. While action may look different for different parties, everyone has the capacity to help. In addition to the recommendations contained at the end of this report, SAR invites readers to consider the following opportunities for action and to propose their own novel approaches.[1]
Institutions should promote understanding and respect for core higher education values like academic freedom, institutional autonomy, accountability, equitable access, and social responsibility, including by proactively developing a set of ritualizing practices on their campuses. This means creating and repeating regular, visible, and meaningful opportunities for everyone to discuss these values and their meaning in practice in the community. SAR can help with materials for trainings and workshops on academic freedom.
Associations and societies should encourage research into the root causes of attacks on higher education and efforts to protect academic freedom. They can include the issue on the agendas of regional and annual meetings, form committees to address attacks, and develop their own research. The Association for Asian Studies, for example, will be releasing a new volume as part of their Asia Shorts series focused on academic freedom. The publication, New Threats to Academic Freedom in Asia, will be published in 2022, following a virtual roundtable on the topic.[17] The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) published a report, Academic Freedom in the Netherlands, which discusses the responsibilities of scientists, states, and others in conducting academic research and inquiry.[18] The German Academic Exchange Council (DAAD) developed a guide for universities and research institutions to assess prospects and risks related to international academic cooperation under complex conditions.[19] The Magna Charta Observatory launched a new version of the Magna Charta Universitatum, the MCU 2020, which acknowledges the increasingly global role of universities and their accompanying responsibilities.[20] In 2020, the European University Association, as part of the EU-funded Inspireurope project coordinated by SAR Europe, mapped existing support in Europe for researchers at risk. The findings of this mapping report are now informing policy recommendations to the EU and national governments on how to improve support for researchers at risk.[21]
Law faculty can lead Academic Freedom Legal Clinics, through which students engage with practical and theoretical issues relating to academic freedom and responses to attacks on higher education. Clinics have developed submissions for the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the UN Universal Periodic Review process, the European Court of Human Rights, and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, among others.[23]
Press and artistic freedom advocates can partner with SAR on advocacy initiatives that seek greater protections for the intellectual, creative, and expressive freedoms these groups need to thrive.
Attacks on higher education shrink the space for everyone to think, question, and share ideas. Civil society and members of the public should actively support academic freedom. For example, the UK-based Academic Freedom and Internationalisation Working Group is a coalition of concerned academics, members of the All-Party Parliamentary Human Rights Group, and relevant civil society representatives focused on strengthening protection for academic freedom and scholars exercising it within the context of the internationalization of UK higher education.[26]
Academic freedom is legally grounded in multiple international human rights standards. It is fully and independently grounded in freedom of opinion and expression, the right to education, and the right to the benefits of science, respectively, and has elements of freedom of association, freedom of movement, and other rights. Numerous international statements from state sources reaffirm the right of academic freedom under these standards.
At the international level, protections for academic freedom begin within the documents collectively known as the International Bill of Human Rights: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). Specifically, ICCPR Article 19(2) protects the right of everyone to hold opinions without interference and:
In order for academic freedom to be meaningfully realized, higher education institutions must be grounded in certain core values that support the quality of research, teaching, and learning. In addition to academic freedom, these core values include institutional autonomy, accountability, equitable access, and social responsibility.
Social responsibility is the duty of members of the higher education community to use the freedoms and opportunities afforded by state and public respect for academic freedom and institutional autonomy in a manner consistent with the obligation to seek and impart truth, according to ethical and professional standards, and to respond to contemporary problems and needs of all members of society. The UNESCO RSHETP states:
Under existing international human rights standards, states have affirmative obligations (positive and negative) to protect and promote academic freedom. These include obligations to: refrain from direct or complicit involvement in violations of academic freedom; protect higher education communities against such violations; support victims of such violations; deter future violations, including by investigating violations and holding perpetrators accountable; promote the exercise of academic freedom, including by supporting higher education and international research cooperation; and promote greater understanding of academic freedom and its benefit to society.[12]
The Monitoring Project organizes documented attacks into six categories: killings, violence, and disappearances; wrongful imprisonment; wrongful prosecution; loss of position and expulsion from study; improper travel restrictions; and other severe or systemic issues. This chapter provides an overview of the typology of attacks, using Monitoring Project data from this reporting period to highlight relevant issues of concern, including attacks on student expression that figure into many of the incidents SAR reports. This overview is followed by profiles of countries and territories where SAR has reported higher frequencies of attacks or broad systemic pressures that directly restrict the academic freedom of large numbers of scholars and students in a given location.
SAR condemns targeted, violent attacks on higher education communities, threats of violence, and the use of lethal force against student protesters. SAR calls on state authorities to investigate these incidents, to make every effort to hold perpetrators accountable, and to ensure the security of all members of the community. State authorities must publicize investigations and accountability measures, so as to reach constituents, positively influence state and non-state actors, and make these measures effective. SAR also calls on higher education institutions and civil society to press state authorities for greater protection and accountability, and to contribute to efforts to understand and reinforce principles of autonomy and academic freedom.
Imprisonments and prosecutions of scholars and students are wrongful when intended to punish, deter, or impede nonviolent academic activity or the exercise of other protected rights, including freedoms of expression, association, or assembly. Such prosecutions are typically brought under laws aimed at restricting critical inquiry and expression. These include especially opaque and overbroad blasphemy, lèse-majesté, civil and criminal defamation, sedition, espionage, national security, and terrorism laws that make illegal the mere expression of opinions or ideas on certain topics, without any link to violent or otherwise criminal acts or intentions whatsoever. Such laws raise concern for entire higher education communities in that they sanction and impose artificial boundaries on research, teaching, publications, and discussion, undermining quality, creativity, and innovation that can benefit society at large.[17] Scholars have also faced legal actions brought under other laws of general application, including, for example, those proscribing financial impropriety, corruption, or immorality. Wrongful prosecutions under these laws damage the reputation of the targeted individuals and isolate them from their institutions, colleagues, and other sources of professional and personal support. In many cases, legal proceedings and prosecutions of scholars and students involve forced confessions, fabricated evidence, arbitrary charges, and lengthy prison sentences or harsh penalties. Trials may be repeatedly delayed or held in secret or closed-door proceedings, denying access to media and family. Such actions raise serious due process concerns. 2ff7e9595c
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